Jean Piagets Theory Essay Example for Free

Jean Piagets Theory Essay Piaget’s theory is based on stages, whereby each stage represents a qualitatively different type of thinking. Children in stage one cannot think the same as children in stage 2, 3 or 4 etc. Transitions from one stage to another are generally very fast, and the stages always follow an invariant sequence. Another important characteristic of his stage theory is that they are universal; the stages will work for everyone in the world regardless of their differences (except their age, of course, which is what the stages are based on!) Piaget acknowledged that there is an interaction between a child and the environment, and this is a focal point for his theory. He believed a child cannot learn unless they are constantly interacting with their environment, making mistakes and then learning from them. He defined children as â€Å"lone scientists†; he did not identify any need for teachers or adults in cognitive development. Children have all the cognitive mechanisms to learn on their own, and the interaction with their environment allows them to do so. To put this in perspective, another theory by Lev Vygotsky suggested that the interaction is not important at all; the child will learn when encouraged to with an adult’s assistance. I will be explaining then contrasting Vygotsky’s theory to Piaget’s in my next post – so be sure to check back for that! With the background of his theory explained, let’s look at – The Key Concepts of Piaget’s theory: Before explaining the main part of Piaget’s theory (the four stages), it’s very important to look at some of the underlying principles behind it. Rather than write a stupidly long paragraph explaining it all, I will write the key terms in bold, then explain them in bullet points – just to keep things simple! †¢Schema (pl. Schemata, although some say â€Å"Schemas† for the plural) Possibly one of the most important concepts put forward by Piaget, Schemata help individuals understand the world they inhabit. They are cognitive structures that represent a certain aspect of the world, and can be seen as categories which have certain pre-conceived ideas in them. For example, my schema for Christmas includes: Christmas trees, presents, giving, money, green, red, gold, winter, Santa Claus etc. Someone else may have an entirely different schema, such as Jesus, birth, Church, holiday, Christianity etc. Of course, there are schemata for all kinds of things – yourself (self schemata), other people (people schemata), events/situations (event schemata) and roles/occupations (role schemata). With regards to Piaget’s theory, a child might have a pre-conceived schema for a dog. If the household has a small West Highland White Terrier as a dog, the schema might be â€Å"small, furry, four legs, white†. When the child interacts with a new dog – perhaps a Labrador, it will change to incorporate the new information, such as â€Å"big, golden, smooth etc.† This is known as: †¢Assimilation Simply the process of incorporating new information into a pre-existing schema. So with the â€Å"dog† example, the child assimilated the Labrador’s information into the old dog schema. Assimilation is essentially fitting new information into schemata we already have in place. Unfortunately, this can lead to stereotyping. For example, if an old lady sees a teenager mug another person, she might assimilate â€Å"violence† or â€Å"crime† into her teenage schema. Next time she sees a teenager, her schema will be applied to them – and although they may be a kind person, she will probably show prejudice. Assimilation is normally a simple process, as new information already fits the pre-exisiting categories. †¢Accommodation When coming across a new object for the first time, a child will attempt to apply an old schema to the object. For consistency, let’s use the dog example again. The child may have â€Å"four legs, furry† in their dog schema. When coming across another similar animal, such as a cat, they might say â€Å"Look, a dog!† – that’s assimilation. However, when told that it’s actually a cat – not a dog – they will accommodate the new information into another schema. They will now form a â€Å"cat† schema; â€Å"not all four legged furry animals are dogs – some are cats too!†. They have accommodated the new information. The process just mentioned – of assimilation then accommodation is known as †¢Adaptation Assimilation and accommodation are the two parts of adaptation – which is simply what it says – adapting our schemata to make an accurate (enough) model of the world we live in. It is a form of learning, but an entirely different form to the kind you’d see in behaviourist psychology for example (such as operant/classical conditioning). †¢Equilibrium Piaget suggested that humans naturally strive to achieve a cognitive balance; there must be a balance between applying prior knowledge (assimilation) and changing schemata to account for new information (accommodation). Piaget suggested that when a child has a schema which doesn’t fit reality, there is tension in the mind. By balancing the use of assimilation and accommodation, this tension is reduced and we can proceed to higher levels of thought and learning (equilibration). QUICK SUMMARY: Children have schemata (cognitive structures that contain pre-existing ideas of the world), which are constantly changing. Schemata constantly undergo adaptation, through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. When seeing new objects there is a state of tension, and a child will attempt to assimilate the information to see if it fits into prior schemata. If this fails, the information must be accommodated by either adding new schemata or modifying the existing ones to accommodate the information. By balancing the use of assimilation and accommodation, an equilibrium is created, reducing cognitive tension (equilibration). Vygotskys theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of cognition Vygotsky, 1978), as he believed strongly that community plays a central role in the process of making meaning. Unlike Piagets notion that childrens development must necessarily precede their learning, Vygotsky argued, learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organized, specifically human psychological function (1978, p. 90). In other words, social learning tends to precede (i.e. come before) development. Vygotsky has developed a socio-cultural approach to cognitive development. He developed his theories at around the same time as Jean Piaget was starting to develop his theories (1920s and 30s), but he died at the age of 38 and so his theories are incomplete although some of his writings are still being translated from Russian. No single principle (such as Piagets equilibration) can account for development. Individual development cannot be understood without reference to the social and cultural context within which it is embedded. Higher mental processes in the individual have their origin in social processes. Vygotskys theory differs from that of Piaget in a number of important ways: 1: Vygotsky places more emphasis on culture affecting/shaping cognitive development this contradicts Piagets view of universal stages and content of development. (Vygotsky does not refer to stages in the way that Piaget does). 2: Vygotsky places considerably more emphasis on social factors contributing to cognitive development (Piaget is criticised for underestimating this). 3: Vygotsky places more (and different) emphasis on the role of language in cognitive development (again Piaget is criticised for lack of emphasis on this). Effects of Culture: Tools of intellectual adaptation Like Piaget, Vygotsky claimed that infants are born with the basic materials/abilities for intellectual development Piaget focuses on motor reflexes and sensory abilities. Vygotsky refers to Elementary Mental Functions – o Attention o Sensation o Perception o Memory Eventually, through interaction within the socio-cultural environment, these are developed into more sophisticated and effective mental processes/strategies which he refers to as Higher Mental Functions. For example, memory in young children this is limited by biological factors. However, culture determines the type of memory strategy we develop. E.g., in our culture we learn note-taking to aid memory, but in pre-literate societies other strategies must be developed, such as tying knots in string to remember, or carrying pebbles, or repetition of the names of ancestors until large numbers can be repeated. Vygotsky refers to tools of intellectual adaptation these allow children to use the basic mental functions more effectively/adaptively, and these are culturally determined (e.g. memory mnemonics, mind maps). Vygotsky therefore sees cognitive functions, even those carried out alone, as affected by the beliefs, values and tools of intellectual adaptation of the culture in which a person develops and therefore socio-culturally determined. The tools of intellectual adaptation therefore vary from culture to culture as in the memory example Social Influences on Cognitive Development Like Piaget, Vygotsky believes that young children are curious and actively involved in their own learning and the discovery and development of new understandings/schema. However, Vygotsky placed more emphasis on social contributions to the process of development, whereas Piaget emphasised self-initiated discovery. According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs through social interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviours and/or provide verbal instructions for the child. Vygotsky refers to this as co-operative or collaborative dialogue. The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor (often the parent or teacher) then internalizes the information, using it to guide or regulate their own performance. Shaffer (1996) gives the example of a young girl who is given her first jigsaw. Alone, she performs poorly in attempting to solve the puzzle. The father then sits with her and describes or demonstrates some basic strategies, such as finding all the comer/edge pieces and provides a couple of pieces for the child to put together herself and offers encouragement when she does so. As the child becomes more competent, the father allows the child to work more independently. According to Vygotsky, this type of social interaction involving co-operative or collaborative dialogue promotes cognitive development. In order to gain an understanding of Vygotskys theories on cognitive development, one must understand two of the main principles of Vygotskys work: the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). More Knowledgeable Other The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat self-explanatory; it refers to someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is not necessarily the case. Many times, a childs peers or an adults children may be the individuals with more knowledge or experience. For example, who is more likely to know more about the newest teen-age music groups, how to win at the most recent PlayStation game, or how to correctly perform the newest dance craze a child or their parents? In fact, the MKO need not be a person at all. Some companies, to support employees in their learning process, are now using electronic performance support systems. Electronic tutors have also been used in educational settings to facilitate and guide students through the learning process. The key to MKOs is that they must have (or be programmed with) more knowledge about the topic being learned than the learner does. Zone of Proximal Development The concept of the More Knowledgeable Other is integrally related to the second important principle of Vygotskys work, the Zone of Proximal Development. This is an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child can achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner. For example, the child could not solve the jigsaw puzzle (in the example above) by itself and would have taken a long time to do so (if at all), but was able to solve it following interaction with the father, and has developed competence at this skill that will be applied to future jigsaws. Vygotsky (1978) sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given allowing the child to develop skills they will then use on their own developing higher mental functions. Vygotsky also views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills and strategies. He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent children develop with help from more skillful peers within the zone of proximal development.

The Common Good in Hobbes, De Tocqueville and Marx :: Philosophy Politics Papers

The Common Good in Hobbes, De Tocqueville and Marx Political philosophies are those theories and ideas that seek to study the impact of various political idealisms on society, and their impact in the shaping of social, political, and economic ideas. The questions which political philosophy seeks to turn its attention towards range from describing what the state of Man actually is at the existential level, to the types of social regimes, which are necessary to tame and organise that nature. In this context, there is a measure of truth in the suggestion that the answers, or visions they give are not, necessarily, entirely original. Plato, the student of Socrates, was himself keenly interested in political philosophy and set himself the task of conceptually evolving a society which would function properly. Plato's ideal society was comprised of rulers, guardians, and the masses. All these various strands within society are moulded at a young age to play a societal role, in order that they might contribute positively and affirmingly to t he betterment of their own social arena. Within the context of the history of political philosophy, Plato emerges as one of the more gifted political theorists, if not, perhaps, the best. While closely examining the needs of society, he was able to recognise the needs of society as well as the needs of the individual. He humbled the ego of Man when he acknowledged that one individual could not survive on his own and that all people are dependent on others to survive. His idea of an organised community has been the focus of many political philosophy debates and has been the stepping-stone by which many political philosophers have created their own ideal social environment. Though their theories may not be identical to those of Plato, signs of his structures are definitely present. Thomas Hobbes, the seventeenth century political philosopher, had some theories and ideas keenly similar to those of Plato. Hobbe's view of the state of nature was a very primitive one: he felt that in the state of nature there was a war of every person against every person. In the natural state justice was impossible, because without set limits and structures, everyone has the right to do whatever they wish and anarchy is almost inevitable. The only ay to escape the unfortunate state of anarchy was for everyone to agree a covenant. The conditions of the covenant were to give the sovereign full discretion in dealing with citizens.

Filter Innovations Inc Case

2008 > John Dragasevich (president), small water filtration company based out of Toronto, Ontario, considering expansion, increasingly strict regulations on wastewater management implemented by government, invest in new technology (membrane biological reactors)? Industry: > increased demand for water and water treatment, trend expected to continue > market projections reaching $348 billion > demand growing for safe drinking water in developing countries > sustainability challenges and advancements in environmental regulation result in growth of demand for higher water treatment standards > 2008, 1. billion without drinking water, 2. 4 billion not connected to wastewater systems > 40% projected increase in water consumption by 2025, 1/3 of world population affected by water shortage > in Canada, more than $2 billion in sales > largest consumers – municipalities, both products and services > significant portion of market – industrial Competition: > dominated by 2 large mu tli-national companies ( Siemens water tech and Zenon membrane solutions) > competition targeted large users of filtration systems (corporation and municipalities) requiring over 1 million litres/day > Siemens – 2. million in revenue, 6000 employees (150 R&D), serve more than 90% of fortune 500 manufacturing companies, around 100,000 industrial consumers, parent company Siemens AG over 100 billion electronics and engineering company in over 190 countries with 428,000 people, leader in innovation > Zenon – owned by GE, provided a complete range of filtration processes, offered broadest product line in industry, over 100 years of experience, over 300,000 employees in over 100 countries, publically traded with 18 million in revenue > smaller competitors, specialize in niche market, offer sales and support on a specific type of filtration and treatment product Environment: have to meet provincial regulations based on standards set by federal legislation > some environmenta l legislation required wastewater treatment > discharge limits for sewer use, storm sewers, and groundwater seepage; limits vary regionally > wastewater dumped for use of a fertilizer must be treated > stricter legislation raising environmental standards required by companies > many companies require certificate of approval from ministry of environment and energy, validating compliance with all guidelines Filter Innovations Inc: > dragasevich studied marine biology, worked for major supplier of filter presses in NA > extensive experience in industrial process and environmental products, sales manager with GAF (industry leader for filter vessels and bag filters) > 1992, founded Filter Innovations Company: > small industrial water filtration company identifies and supplies treatment solutions for groundwater, wastewater, process water and air > evaluated client`s needs and design appropriate system to meet need, develop and build system, install it, monitor it regularly, offer product support > supplies wide range of environmental products to support filtration systems > goal – prioritize social and environmental responsibilities at all times to ensure that actions positively influence both the community and environment > ongoing R&D development of new technologies for new products and systems; important to be recognized as being at forefront of the leading technology > employs 14 people, sales representatives, technology engineers & technicians, administrative staff > alliance with firms acting as distributors of its products and systems across NA with few sales in Europe and SA > serves 500 clients, FII equipment operational in over 1500 business sites; 80% sales in Canada, 15% sales in US, 5% sales outside of NA > wants to be recognized as primary supplier of environmental equipment and products, offers simple, innovative solutions for air and water treatment; wants to be one-stop shop for all filtration needs, offering timely and cost-effective soluti ons Calco Group: > 2006, FII purchased by CEG (identifies and acquires environmental companies that were leading suppliers of its specific products) > membership with Calco allowed companies to share resources, networks, and knowledge > MLE (groundwater remediation) offers similar products as FII; MLE benefit from sales expertise; FII able to capitalize on MLE strong manufacturing focus Operations: high focus on sales/technical knowledge; high customer-centric outlook; flexibility in meeting needs of customer key to success; unique/comprehensive business structure (engineering, manufacturing, and distributing of various filtration products and systems > commodity products in inventory for quick sale (filter media, off-the-shelf filtration units), other products ordered from suppliers as needed (keep inventory investments and storage costs low) > advantageous membership with CEG and strong supplier networks > customized systems – engage in collaborative design efforts with cli ents and engineers; once designed, system built by manufacturing alliances then installed and supported by FII > offers rental and leasing option; three types interested in this – those who want to test a system before purchase, those who need it for a specific time period only, and those who want to finance system through regular instalment payments Sales: > about 65% of revenues from sale of individual products; customized products represent 35% of sales Consumers: 2 reason for demand – companies pollute above regulated level obligated to avoid environmental penalties; companies recognize opportunity to save money by cleaning/recycling wastewater by reducing disposal costs; demand ranges from short-term, quick-fix to long-term consultation/installation (ongoing monitoring and support) > tend to focus on projects requiring less that 1 million litres/day; able to provide personalized support; larger companies don’t find these projects profitable, less competitio n > customers in 2 equal groups – environmental consulting companies/distributors on behalf of their clients; end users (buy direct from FII) Environmental consultants: > analyse clients’ wastewater treatment needs, recommend solution and help implement it; after assessing need, issue request for RFP from each vendor, use industry expertise to recommend best option for client End user: > no internal capability, FII identify needs, build custom solution to fix problem (incorporating restrictions); if commodity products much more price sensitive choose vendor with lowest price, for custom products price less of a concern and willing to pay; learn through tradeshows, advertising, word-of-mouth, and industry reputation MBR: new, stricter government regulations meant that company’s existing wastewater treatment designs did not meet new guidelines; faced with decision of whether to expand into MBR market > MBR – new technology for wastewater treatment, allow fo r water re-use; different application than FII > MBR designed to treat biological wastewater, predict that MBR system will be used to add reverse osmosis to make water safe for portable water consumption > Europe leading in development > currently best environmental option; FII would benefit from MBR sales and advanced knowhow/expertise with respect to manufacturing, engineering, building, and supporting new systems Potential Customer base: MBR system would be important factor for FII’s profitability; treating wastewater under 10,000 litres/day means government approval to pass building code > testing costs (one time) $200,000; over that volume company only needs certificate of approval available at no cost as customer would pay fee based on percentage of system cost > FII fearful of competition, FII need to target and seek out contracts that would be profitable but not attractive to large competitors MBR competition: > Sanitherm (subsidiary of Peak energy services based in w estern Canada and direct competition with FII, provides turnkey solutions, built, installed and operate various products/systems, hold 3% of MBR market, sold water and wastewater treatment systems globally) > Enviroquip (division of Eimco Water Technologies, hold 30% of MBR market share in NA, operates in Texas, specializes in design and manufacturing, offers full range of equipment for water pollution control, advanced waste treatment, water treatment and sludge handling) Potential Expansion: reputation with MBR will take a while to build, expect sales to be minimal to start but will grow; sales could reach a high of $500,000 (before installation) in 1st year, reaching several million in following years > additional revenues (half of each system) for installation paid at beginning with allowance of 90 days COGS > MBR cost average of 35% f system sale (20% for membrane and 80% for fabrication) > membrane purchase from supplier (SGR AQUIRIS in Europe), minimum start-up membrane inven tory of $25,000 on hand and had to pay cash upon receipt > fabrication components bought from member of Calco, extended credit terms and alwys paid in 60 day, transportation paid for by FII and cost 5% of COGS Other Expenses: need to hire technology expert ($48,000), and support person ($38,000) > dragsevich and other managers have to co-ordinate with suppliers and customers to monitor new business in terms of R&D; 20% of time spent on MBRs ($30,000) > more space needed for inventory and personnel, operates in facility that allows for lease of additional adjacent units for expansion; $2,250/month/unit; utility $180/month > important to brand itself properly to gain recognition as reliable supplier of MBR business; planned an additional $6,400 annually MBR marketing > need to purchase software modelling program for $18,000, beneficial for 3 years and amortized using straight-line with zero salvage value > paid for advertising, attends tradeshows, provided articles; 25% of costs would directly relate to new MBR business; plan to subscribe to various publications, advertise and attend tradeshows that specialize in MBR; if sales reached 1 million would need to hire s MBR sales manager ($70,000) Conclusion: is it right time to get into MBR? Wise investment? Sales projection may be overly optimistic and it could vary highly depending on ability to brand itself

Models For Diffusion Of Innovations Among Potential Adopters

Models for diffusion of innovations among potential adopters have been recently used to study the life cycle of new products and to forecast first-purchase sales. Those models are useful for managers as decision aids to create and perform strategies to maintain the profitability of new products across their life cycle. Bass (1969) pioneered this area of research with a model for diffusions of new products under peer pressure via word-of-mouth. This model distinguished two parameters: innovation and imitation. Later, Chatterjee and Eliashberg (1990) provided a microeconomic version of Bass’s model that included interactions among potential adopters and the formation of beliefs. In Chatterjee and Eliashberg’s model, potential adopters were risk averse and used the price and their perceptions about the innovation’s performance as inputs for utility functions. Thus, with Bayesian methods, potential adopters updated parameters with information from past adopters. Our model also focuses on informational influence on adoption of new products. However, we modified Chatterjee and Eliashberg’s model of beliefs formation and individual choice by taking into account the possibility that influences take place only among consumers who are connected in a social network. The objective of this article is twofold. First, we seek to determine how global parameters of the social network, such as average path length and clustering, affect diffusion processes. Second, we attempt to identify earlyShow MoreRelated Rogers Diffusion and Adoption Research Essay1560 Words   |  7 PagesRogers Diffusion and Adoption Research Why do technology initiatives fail despite their promises and boundless possibilities? From integrating technology in education to introducing technological innovation in agriculture, users acceptance presents a complex set of challenges to innovation diffusion. 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